Cost-benefit analysis of drinking water fluoridation in 12-year-old children in the Biobío region, Chile / Análisis costo-ceneficio de la fluoración del agua potable en niños de12 años de la región del Biobío, Chile

Fluoridation has been shown to be an effective measure against caries in children. The present study evaluates the cost-benefit of the fluoridated water program for the reduction of dental caries in 12-year-old children in the Biobío Region, the only region in Chile that has not implemented this program. An economic cost-benefit evaluation was carried out, comparing two alternative interventions: non-fluoridated drinking water versus fluoridated drinking water. The prevalence of caries, direct and indirect costs of the treatments, the cost of implementing the programs and the benefits of both interventions were estimated. From this study it is concluded that the savings in oral health costs in 12-year-old children when using fluoridating drinking water in the Biobío region is significantly higher than the cost involved in implementing the water fluoridation program, resulting in total savings for the Chilean state of $129,861,645 (USD$ 152,833) as well as an estimated reduction of 15% in the history of caries in the study population.

Se ha demostrado que la fluoración es una medida efectiva contra disminución de la caries en la población infantil. La presente investigación buscó evaluar cual es el costo-beneficio del programa del agua fluorada para la disminución de caries dental en niños de 12 años de la Región del Biobío, única región de Chile que no adhiere a este programa. Se realizó una evaluación económica de costo-beneficio, comparando dos intervenciones alternativas: agua potable no fluorada versus agua potable fluorada. Para tal fin se estimó la prevalencia de caries, costos directos e indirectos de los tratamientos, el costo de implementación de los programas y el beneficio de ambas intervenciones. De este estudio se concluye que el ahorro en costos de salud bucal en niños de 12 años al fluorar el agua potable en la región del Biobío, es significativamente mayor al costo que implica la implementación del programa de fluoración de aguas, lográndose un ahorro total para el Estado de $129.861.645 (USD $152.833) así como una estimación de reducción del 15% en la historia de caries en la población de estudio.

The health and economic burden of smoking in 12 Latin American countries and the potential effect of increasing tobacco taxes: an economic modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, smoking tobacco causes 7 million deaths annually, and this toll is expected to increase, especially in low-income and middle-income countries. In Latin America, smoking is a leading risk factor for death and disability, contributes to poverty, and imposes an economic burden on health systems. Despite being one of the most effective measures to reduce smoking, tobacco taxation is underused and cigarettes are more affordable in Latin America than in other regions. Our aim was to estimate the tobacco-attributable burden on mortality, disease incidence, quality of life lost, and medical costs in 12 Latin American countries, and the expected health and economic effects of increasing tobacco taxes. METHODS: In this modelling study, we developed a Markov probabilistic microsimulation economic model of the natural history, medical costs, and quality-of-life losses associated with the most common tobacco-related diseases in 12 countries in Latin America. Data inputs were obtained through a literature review, vital statistics, and hospital databases from each country: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. The main outcomes of the model are life-years, quality-adjusted life-years, disease events, hospitalisations, disease incidence, disease cost, and healthy years of life lost. We estimated direct medical costs for each tobacco-related disease included in the model using a common costing methodology for each country. The disease burden was estimated as the difference in disease events, deaths, and associated costs between the results predicted by the model for current smoking prevalence and a hypothetical cohort of people in each country who had never smoked. The model estimates the health and financial effects of a price increase of cigarettes through taxes, in terms of disease and health-care costs averted, and increased tax revenues. FINDINGS: In the 12 Latin American countries analysed, we estimated that smoking is responsible for approximately 345 000 (12%) of the total 2 860 921 adult deaths, 2·21 million disease events, 8·77 million healthy years of life lost, and $26·9 billion in direct medical costs annually. Health-care costs attributable to smoking were estimated to represent 6·9% of the health budgets of these countries, equivalent to 0·6% of their gross domestic product. Tax revenues from cigarette sales cover 36·0% of the estimated health expenditures caused by smoking. We estimated that a 50% increase in cigarette price through taxation would avert more than 300 000 deaths, 1·3 million disease events, gain 9 million healthy life-years, and save $26·7 billion in health-care costs in the next 10 years, with a total economic benefit of $43·7 billion. INTERPRETATION: Smoking represents a substantial health and economic burden in these 12 countries of Latin America. Tobacco tax increases could successfully avert deaths and disability, reduce health-care spending, and increase tax revenues, resulting in large net economic benefits. FUNDING: International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada.

Latin American Clinical Epidemiology Network Series - Paper 8: Ticagrelor was cost-effective vs. clopidogrel in acute coronary syndrome in Chile.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of the use of ticagrelor as a substitute for clopidogrel for secondary prevention of acute coronary syndrome in Chile. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: Cost-effectiveness analysis based on a Markov model: Safety and effectiveness data of ticagrelor were obtained from a systematic review of the literature. Costs are expressed in Chilean pesos (CLP) as of 2013. The evaluation was conducted from the payer standpoint. A probabilistic sensitivity analysis comprising discount rates and national cost variability was done. A budget impact analysis estimated for 2015 was conducted to calculate the total cost for both treatments. RESULTS: The ICER with a discount rate of 6% for ticagrelor vs. clopidogrel was CLP 4,893,126 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained (=9,689 US$). In the budget impact analysis for the baseline scenario, considering 100% of treatment, coverage, and adherence, ticagrelor represented an additional cost of CLP 5,233,854,272, for 979 QALYs gained compared with clopidogrel. CONCLUSIONS: Ticagrelor is cost-effective in comparison with clopidogrel for the secondary prevention of acute coronary syndrome. These findings are similar to those reported in other international cost-effectiveness studies.

Latin American Clinical Epidemiology Network Series - Paper 2: Apixaban was cost-effective vs. acenocoumarol in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation with moderate to severe risk of embolism in Chile.

OBJECTIVE: Nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) is a risk factor for ischemic stroke and systemic embolism. New oral anticoagulants are currently available. The objective of this study was to assess the incremental cost-utility ratio (ICUR) for apixaban vs. acenocoumarol in patients treated in Chile's public health system. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: We assessed cost-utility from the payer perspective with a lifetime Markov model. Epidemiologic characteristics, costs, and utilities were obtained from a Chilean cohort; data were completed with information from international literature. RESULTS: Incremental costs when using apixaban vs. acenocoumarol over a lifetime are CH$2,108,600 with an incremental effectiveness of 0.173 years of life gained (YLG) and 0.182 quality-adjusted life-year (QALY). The ICUR of apixaban vs. acenocoumarol was CH$12,188,439 per YLG and CH$11,585,714 per QALY. One to 3 times gross domestic product (GDP) per capita threshold is acceptable based on World Health Organization (WHO) norms. Chilean GDP per capita was CH$7,797,021 in 2013. The sensitivity analysis shows that these results are sensitive to the ischemic stroke risk with apixaban, and the intracranial hemorrhage risk due to the use of acenocoumarol. CONCLUSION: The use of apixaban in patients with NVAF in moderate-to-high risk of stroke is cost-effective, considering the payment threshold suggested by WHO.

Impacto económico del tabaquismo en los sistemas de salud de América Latina: un estudio en siete países y su extrapolación a nivel regional / Financial impact of smoking on health systems in Latin America: A study of seven countries and extrapolation to the regional level

Objetivo. Estimar los costos médicos directos atribuibles al tabaquismo en los sistemas de salud de América Latina. Métodos. Se utilizó un modelo de microsimulación para cuantificar el impacto económico en enfermedad cardiovascular y cerebrovascular, enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica (EPOC), neumonía, cáncer de pulmón y otras nueve neoplasias. Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática de datos epidemiológicos y de costos de los eventos. El modelo se calibró y validó para Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, México y Perú, países que representan el 78% de la población de América Latina; luego se extrapolaron los resultados a nivel regional. Resultados. Cada año el tabaquismo es responsable de 33 576 millones de dólares en costos directos para el sistema de salud. Esto equivale a 0,7% del producto interno bruto (PIB) de la región y a 8,3% del presupuesto sanitario. La enfermedad cardiovascular, la EPOC y el cáncer fueron responsables de 30,3%, 26,9% y 23,7% de este gasto, respectivamente. El costo atribuible al tabaquismo varió entre 0,4% (México y Perú) y 0,9% (Chile) del PIB y entre 5,2% (Brasil) y 12,7% (Bolivia) del gasto en salud. En la región, la recaudación impositiva por la venta de cigarrillos apenas cubre 37% del gasto sanitario atribuible al tabaquismo (8,1% en Bolivia y 67,3% en Argentina). Conclusiones. El tabaquismo es responsable de una importante proporción del gasto sanitario en América Latina, y la recaudación impositiva por la venta de cigarrillos está lejos de llegar a cubrirlo. La profundización de medidas como el aumento de impuestos al tabaco debería ser seriamente considerada por los países de la Región.

Objective. Estimate smoking-attributable direct medical costs in Latin American health systems. Methods. A microsimulation model was used to quantify financial impact of cardio-vascular and cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, lung cancer, and nine other neoplasms. A systematic search for epidemio-logical data and event costs was carried out. The model was calibrated and validated for Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, countries that account for 78% of Latin America’s population; the results were then extrapolated to the regional level. Results. Every year, smoking is responsible for 33 576 billion dollars in direct costs to health systems. This amounts to 0.7% of the region’s gross domestic product (GDP) and 8.3% of its health budget. Cardiovascular disease, COPD, and cancer were respon-sible for 30.3%, 26.9%, and 23.7% of these expenditures, respectively. Smoking-attributable costs ranged from 0.4% (Mexico and Peru) to 0.9% (Chile) of GDP and from 5.2% (Brazil) to 12.7% (Bolivia) of health expenditures. In the region, tax reve-nues from cigarette sales barely cover 37% of smoking-attributable health expenditu-res (8.1% in Bolivia and 67.3% in Argentina). Conclusions. Smoking is responsible for a significant proportion of health spending in Latin America, and tax revenues from cigarette sales are far from covering it. The region’s countries should seriously consider stronger measures, such as an increase in tobacco taxes.

Revisión Sistemática sobre los Efectos Adversos de la Fluoración del Agua / Systematic Review of the Adverse Effects of Water Fluoridation

Durante las últimas décadas, una considerable atención científica ha sido puesta en la seguridad de los fluoruros, dada la amplia variedad de fuentes de ingestión a la que la población se encuentra expuesta y los riesgos a la salud de las personas que esto puede acarrear. El objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar si la fluoración del agua a concentraciones de 0,6 a 1 ppm se asocian a una mayor proporción de efectos adversos en la población general al compararlo con concentraciones subóptimas. Se realizó una revisión sistemática de la literatura en MEDLINE, EMBASE, COCHRANE, SCIELO, LILACS, CRD, BBO, PAHO y WHOLIS, limitada desde el 2002 al 2012. Se incluyeron estudios primarios y secundarios en español, inglés y portugués con al menos dos poblaciones comparadas, una con niveles óptimos de flúor en agua (0,6­1 ppm) y otra sin fluoración del agua (<0,3 ppm) o con niveles subóptimos (>0,3 < 0,6 ppm). Dos investigadores de forma independiente realizaron evaluación de la calidad de los artículos seleccionados y que cumplieron los criterios de inclusión. La búsqueda arrojó 1024 artículos de los cuales 24 cumplieron los criterios de inclusión y 10 fueron incluidos como evidencia. Con excepción de fluorosis dental, no hay asociación entre fluoración del agua con fracturas óseas, cáncer u otro efecto adverso. A pesar de la mayor prevalencia de fluorosis en zonas fluoradas, esta fue principalmente del tipo cuestionable a leve y la proporción de fluorosis con daño estético no difiere significativamente de la presente en zonas sin fluoración del agua.

During the last decades, considerable scientific attention has been paid to the safety of fluoride, given the wide variety of sources of intake at which the population is exposed and the risks to the health of people this may produce. The aim was to determine whether water fluoridation at concentrations from 0.6 to 1 ppm is associated with a higher proportion of adverse effects in the general population when comparing them to suboptimal concentrations. A systematic review was conducted of the literature in MEDLINE, EMBASE, COCHRANE, SCIELO, LILACS, CRD, BBO, PAHO and WHOLIS, limited to 2002 to 2012. Included were primary and secondary studies in Spanish, English and Portuguese with at least two compared populations, one with optimal fluoride levels in the water (0.6­1 ppm) and another without water fluoridation (<0.3 ppm) or with suboptimal levels (>0.3 < 0.6ppm). Two researchers independently evaluated the quality of the articles selected and which met the inclusion criteria. The search revealed 1024 articles, of which 24 met the inclusion criteria and 10 were included as evidence. With the exception of dental fluorosis, there is no association between any other adverse effect and water fluoridation. Despite the greater prevalence of fluorosis in fluoride than in non-fluoride zones, this was mainly questionable to slight and the proportion of fluorosis with esthetic damage does not differ significantly from this in zones without water fluoridation.

[The main methodological aspects in Health Technology Assessment]. / Principales aspectos metodológicos en la Evaluación de Tecnologías Sanitarias.

This article reviews the most relevant methodological aspects involved in Health Technology Assessment (HTA). Firstly, it addresses the process of defining the research problem (or scoping). Then it explains some specific aspects of systematic reviews of evidence, as well as indirect and mixed comparisons of the effectiveness of interventions. It covers also the methods for economic evaluation in healthcare and the budget impact analysis of interventions. Finally, the paper provides an empirical insight on the methodological emphasis used by HTA agencies around the world, and reflects on the available capacities in our country in the topics discussed.

Carga de enfermedad atribuible al tabaquismo en Chile / Disease burden attributable to smoking in Chile

Objetivo: El objetivo inicial del proyecto, comenzado en el año 2005, fue seleccionar y desarrollar el marco metodológico más adecuado, así como elaborar un modelo económico común, con el fin de estimar la carga de enfermedad relacionada con el tabaquismo y la costo-efectividad de las intervenciones para controlar la epidemia del tabaco en América Latina.En este reporte se presentan los detalles del modelo económico, el proceso de calibración y validación para adecuarlo a la realidad de Chile y los resultados de carga de enfermedad atribuible al tabaquismo, medida tanto en términos de salud como económicos. Materiales e Métodos: Se describen a continuación los siguientes puntos relacionados con el desarrollo y utilización del modelo económico: 1) Etapa inicial de diagnóstico de situación, 2) Descripción del modelo, 3) Metodología utilizada para la selección de fuentes de información e incorporación de parámetros, 4) Proceso de calibración y validación, 5) Estimación de carga de enfermedad, 6) Aspectos metodológicos de los datos epidemiológicos considerados, y 7) Características de la información de costos de atención médica requerida para el modelo. Conclusión: En Chile el tabaquismo es responsable de una importante cantidad de muertes prematuras, enfermedad y costos sanitarios. El mayor peso está dado por las enfermedades cardiovasculares, la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica y el cáncer de pulmón. Su impacto en la mortalidad y en la calidad de vida es responsable en forma directa de la pérdida de 428.588 años de vida (por muerte prematura y discapacidad) cada año y explica el 18,5% de todas las muertes que se producen en el país. El tabaquismo genera además un costo directo anual de más de 1 billón de pesos chilenos. Es esperable que los resultados de este estudio contribuyan a tomar conciencia sobre los efectos del tabaco y sean un soporte para que los responsables de las políticas puedan llevar adelante intervenciones para reducir su consumo, lograr la implementación de mayores impuestos al tabaco e instalar las políticas de control promovidas por el Convenio Marco de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para el Control del Tabaco (CMCT-OMS).

Principales aspectos metodológicos en la Evaluación de Tecnologías Sanitarias / The main methodological aspects in Health Technology Assessment

This article reviews the most relevant methodological aspects involved in Health Technology Assessment (HTA). Firstly, it addresses the process of defining the research problem (or scoping). Then it explains some specific aspects of systematic reviews of evidence, as well as indirect and mixed comparisons of the effectiveness of interventions. It covers also the methods for economic evaluation in healthcare and the budget impact analysis of interventions. Finally, the paper provides an empirical insight on the methodological emphasis used by HTA agencies around the world, and reflects on the available capacities in our country in the topics discussed.

Análisis Costo Efectividad del Stent Farmacológico V/S Stent no Farmacológico en Cardiopatía Isquémica en Chile.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate and compare the costs and effectiveness of two alternative stent, drug eluting stent (SF) and bare metal stent (SNF). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Cost-utility analysis based on a Markov model using data from a cohort study of Hospital Las Higueras of Talcahuano, Chile. The effectiveness measure was the rate of restenosis and the time of restenosis. The effectiveness outcomes are expressed in quality-adjusted life years (QALY) gained. Costs are expressed in national currency 2011. The evaluation perspective was from the public heath budget. We model a cohort from age 63 to 80 years, life expectancy in Chile. Apply discount rate of 0, 3% and 6% for results and costs. Sensitivity analysis is performed according to the ranges of variability in costs, the utility values of the variables and transition between states. RESULTS: No differences in restenosis rates between the two stents, although there were differences in the time of restenosis. The incremental cost effectiveness ratio (ICER) no discount rate was CH$ 235.749 per QALY gained when using drug-eluting stent, the value below the equivalent of 1 Gross Domestic Product (PIB) per capita for 2011 in Chile. CONCLUSIONS: The drug-eluting stent (SF) is cost effective compared to bare metal stent (SNF). The ICER is not affected by the sensitivity analysis (variability of cost, utility ranges used, probability of restenosis).